Determinants of the digital divide in delivering inclusive education in public schools

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The digital divide continues to expose entrenched disparities in access to quality learning, even as digital technologies become integral to modern education systems. This study investigates the key determinants of the digital divide and their implications for delivering inclusive education in public schools. Grounded in Diffusion of Innovations Theory and Digital Leadership Theory, the research employs a qualitative methodology through a systematic literature review of peer-reviewed articles, and empirical research, and policy documents. The findings highlight ICT skills, digital leadership, and ICT infrastructure as critical enablers or barriers to digital inclusion. Deficiencies in digital competencies among teachers and learners, limited infrastructure, and insufficient digital leadership exacerbate exclusion—especially in marginalized, rural, and low-income contexts. The study emphasizes that digital leadership is central to promoting equitable education by fostering teacher professional development, strategic resource allocation, and inclusive pedagogical practices. Furthermore, the presence of robust ICT infrastructure—including stable electricity, reliable internet, and adequate digital devices—is essential for meaningful digital participation. The research advocates for integrated, context-sensitive interventions that prioritize not only access, but also digital fluency, affordability, and the deployment of adaptive technologies for learners with diverse needs. It concludes by calling for cross-sector collaboration and long-term policy reforms to embed digital equity within the broader goals of inclusive education.