Smartphone-based augmented reality in English learning under Kenya's competency-based curriculum: Engagement, vocabulary and implementation

Abstract

Smartphone-based augmented reality (AR) can connect digital text, images, audio and interactive objects with learners’ physical environments, potentially making language learning more contextualised and participatory. This desktop review examines the potential contribution of smartphone-based AR to learner engagement and English vocabulary learning under Kenya’s Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC), and considers the pedagogical, infrastructural and management conditions that may shape implementation in public secondary schools. The paper draws on selected peer-reviewed empirical research, systematic reviews, meta-analytic evidence and Kenyan curriculum documentation. The reviewed literature suggests that AR can support language-learning gains and motivation, while mobile AR and broader mobile-assisted vocabulary learning offer opportunities for multimodal practice, retrieval and contextual use. However, positive attitudes should not be treated as proof of improved achievement: effects vary by age group, learning objective, intervention duration, instructional design and assessment method. The evidence base also contains limitations, including small samples, inconsistent measures and relatively little context-specific evidence from Kenyan public secondary schools. In the Kenyan CBC context, AR may support communication and collaboration, critical thinking, creativity and digital literacy when activities are explicitly aligned with learning outcomes. Implementation is constrained by unequal device access, data costs, connectivity, electricity, teacher preparedness, accessibility and the availability of locally relevant resources. The paper concludes that AR should be approached as a pedagogical and school-implementation strategy rather than a technological end in itself. It recommends structured teacher development, low-cost and offline-capable resources, equitable access arrangements, clear learner-protection guidelines and empirical evaluation in Kenyan schools.