Mother tongue on paper, English in practice: The language policy and pedagogy disconnect in Grade 3 classrooms in Kiambu County, Kenya

Abstract

Foundational literacy, numeracy, and socio-emotional competencies in early grade education are critical for lifelong learning. In Kenya, despite enrolment exceeding 90%, national monitoring shows only 45% and 60% of Grade 3 learners meet expectations in reading English and in numeracy, respectively. This study examined the disconnect between language-in-education policy, classroom language practices, and high-impact teaching methods under the Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC) in Kiambu County. Using a concurrent mixed-methods design, data were drawn from key informant interviews with 20 education leaders, a survey of 370 Grade 3 teachers, an independent literacy assessment of 778 Grade 3 learners, and observations of 24 live lessons. Findings reveal a persistent policy-practice gap. Most teachers incorrectly believe English is the mandated medium of instruction for Grade 3, while only 14.3% correctly identify mother tongue or language of the catchment area. Mother tongue instruction is nearly absent, not featuring in observed lessons. English dominates in lessons, instead, followed by Kiswahili. Code-switching bridges policy and practice in 75.0% of lessons, driven largely by structural constraints such as the absence of local-language materials. Group work is widespread but differentiated instruction lags. Learner assessments show reading comprehension trailing oral fluency, with integrated and rural schools performing markedly worse than regular-with-special-unit and urban schools. Sustainable improvement requires system-level alignment across policy clarity, teacher retooling, capitation, inclusive adaptation, and assessment reform.